Medieval Period Philosophies of Man
This is Module 2, Lesson 2: Medieval Period Philosophies of Man under the course Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education (read the course introduction here). The Middle Ages or Medieval Period is the period in European history from the collapse of Roman civilization in the 5th century to the period of the Renaissance and Age of Discovery between the 13th and 15th centuries.
The term and its conventional meaning were introduced by Italian humanists in order to distinguish themselves from it. Sometimes it is referred to as the Dark Ages because it presented the confusing and often contradictory picture of a society attempting to structure itself politically on a spiritual basis. We will talk more about this in Prof Ed. For now, let`s just focus on some philosophies of man (human person) in the medieval period related to our studies of Values Education. Let`s get started.
Question:
He claims that man is substantially a united body and soul. The soul is united with the human body and it is the principle of life.
A. Anselm
B. Augustine of Hippo
C. Thomas Aquinas
D. Avicenna
What is your answer, teacher? The answer is option C, Thomas Aquinas. Who are these people? These people were from the Medieval Period. Anselm, Augustine, and Thomas were all Christians, while Avicenna was a Moslem.
In this lesson, we will talk about Augustine and Aquinas. If you are interested in Anselm and Avicenna, by all means, do read their lives and works. They are super interesting philosophers and theologians. Let`s look at the academic context where Augustine and Thomas lived.
This period was characterized by theodicy, which is the study of God with the use of reason alone. (Do not confuse this with theology, which is the study of God with the use of faith and reason). And since academic pursuits were characterized by theodicy, everything was viewed in the context of God`s existence. Ang lahat ng bagay ay pinag-aaralan sa konteksto ng pananampalataya sa Diyos. Another thing is that academic pursuits were concerned with the analysis of God, his nature, and his properties. The discourses, dialogues, debates, and discussions were usually in the realm of metaphysics (things that are beyond physics). Logic and philosophy of language were also hot topics in the Medieval period but theodicy was the most popular. This was the academic setting where Augustine and Aquinas lived.
Let`s talk about Augustine of Hippo.
For him, God created humans with mortal bodies and with immortal souls and gave them free will. God created human beings as naturally good, but the good in us ceases to be good when we turn away from God. This is related to his teachings on original sin.
One of Augustine`s great contributions was the discourse on free will, which he considered as the source of evil in the world. During his time, people were asking, where is evil from? Whence evil? And Augustine answered that it is from our free will. Human is responsible for the existence of evil, not God because God is absolute Goodness. St. Augustine believes that our very nature, which is our free will, is what makes us imperfect. But he believes that we are capable of attaining or reaching perfection, only if we keep ourselves good, that is if we stay and stick with God. Kindly check the separate lecture about St. Augustine`s beautiful life and works available also on YouTube. Watch it here.
Let`s now come to Thomas Aquinas.
Thomas Aquinas understands humans as a whole.
For him, a human person is a substantially united body and soul. The soul, which is united with the human body, is defined by Aquinas as the principle of life. So, death is a separation of body and soul. The soul requires the body as the material medium for its operation, particularly perception. But the soul has operative functions, which do not need a material medium; they are our intellect and will. So for him, when we die, the intellect and will remain in the soul as it is immortal, simple, and incorruptible.
There are tons of interesting ideas contributed by Aquinas, especially in the field of philosophy and theology. If you are interested in him, you can do further readings online.
Augustine and Thomas are two great figures from the Medieval Period who contributed to our study of the human person, especially in the context of Values Education.
As a being with free will and intellect, Values Education is tasked to educate the will of the students (we call it conscience in theology) in order to desire what is good, that which is something desirable; and to educate the intellect to seek the truth and reject lies. But at the turn of the next period, the Modern Period, the concepts of Good and Truth were compromised due to several conflicts that brought political, religious, cultural, intellectual, and moral revolutions. What are those conflicts? Let`s find out.
To make sense of the historical period in the next lesson, let`s have a quick overview of the situation at the end of the Medieval Period and the beginning of the Modern Period. The events are called Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Let`s talk about the Reformation first.
The Reformation was a religious, intellectual, political, and cultural movement or event that happened at the beginning of the 16th century. It started when a Catholic Augustinian Monk Martin Luther posted his 95 theses at the church`s door in Germany in 1517.
Luther`s 95 theses contained the abuses that he saw in the church. For example, simony (the buying and selling of Church offices and services), nepotism (the practice among those with power and influence of favoring relatives and friends), and many other scandal and abuses.
As an Augustinian monk, Luther wanted to reform the Church from within, but those in power were busy with worldly things and did not listen to him. Instead, he was declared a heretic and an outlaw. So, the Reformation of the Catholic Church was delayed.
On the other hand, the other political leaders in Germany and in other parts of Europe who were also against the abuses in the Catholic Church supported Luther. They formed alliances and they set up their own church based on the doctrines of Sola Scriptura (or Bible alone), Sola Fide (or Faith alone), and Sola Gratia (or grace alone). And everything outside of these doctrines was rejected. So, they rejected the Catholic church and established the Protestant church. This made Luther the father of the Reformation and Protestantism.
With Protestantism quickly spreading throughout Europe, the Catholic Church responded with its Counter-Reformation in 1545. Imagine, Luther posted his theses in 1517, and the Church responded with its Counter-Reformation only in 1545. Almost a 30-year delay. And by this time, Europe was already torn apart. Protestantism had already spread inside and outside Europe.
Nevertheless, the Catholic Church managed to convene the Council of Trent in 1545 to counter Protestantism and to renew the Catholic Church from within. Many Religious groups were established during this time to help the Church in its renewal, to preach the gospel, to educate, to care for the sick, the homeless, and the victims of war, and to go on a mission, especially outside Europe.
The religious groups that were established this time were the Barnabites, the Hospitaller Order, the Camillians, the Discalced Carmelites, a new group of Cistercians, the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, the Augustinian Recollects, the Somascans, the Ursulines, the sisters of the Annunciation, the Adorno Fathers, the Society of Jesus or Jesuits, and many more! They had been very instrumental in the renewal of the Catholic church.
Meanwhile, the Protestants and the Catholics were having trouble living together in various parts of Europe. The two factions, having the backing of some powerful monarchs, engaged in a bloody and violent arm conflict. This led to a 30-year war of religion. Numerous people fled. A lot of people died, many children were orphaned, and countless people were displaced. People were totally lost. Life was really difficult and people lived impoverished.
The 30-year war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Then, in 1555 at the Peace of Augsburg, the principle “Cuius regio, eius religio” was followed in Europe. It literally means “whose realm, their religion”. This means that the religion of the ruler was to dictate the religion of the people. For example, if the king is a protestant, the people should also be protestant. If the King is a Catholic, the people should also be Catholic. With this principle, those who cannot accept the religion of the king were welcome to leave and go to other kingdoms or countries.
Incidentally, this was also a time of exploration, expansion, and discovery. The powerful countries in Europe were engaged in exploration activities and amassing huge portions of land. It was the time when Columbus discovered a big chunk of the American land. The English explorers landed in the place we now call the United States of America. The French explorers landed in the place we now call Canada. The Portuguese explorers conquered the place we now call Brazil. While the Spanish explorers conquered most of the lands in South America and some portions of the United States. They were also the explorers who reached the Philippines and included it as one of their colonies. In this colonization period, you can also say that the colonizers brought their religion with them. That is how the Philippines became a catholic country in Asia.
So, this is where we close the Medieval Period. And this was the setting at the beginning of the modern period.
That brings us to the end of this lesson – Medieval Period Philosophies of Man. The Medieval Period ended with a lot of things happening at the backdrop, which we will pick up at the beginning of the modern period.
To recap, we discussed the medieval period philosophies of man focused on the two prominent figures from the Medieval Period: Augustine of Hippo, and Thomas Aquinas. We also briefly described the historical setting at the end of this period. We talked about the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation including the age of exploration & Discovery.
If you have any questions or clarifications related to Medieval Period Philosophies of Man, kindly drop it in the comment section.
REFERENCES
- Agapay, Ramon B. 1991. Ethics and the Filipino, A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators. Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore, Inc.
- De Torre, Joseph M. 1980. Social Morals. The Church Speaks on Society. Manila: Southeast Asian Science Foundation, Inc.
- Esteban, Esther J. 1990. Education in Values: What, Why, and For Whom. Manila: Sinag-tala Publishers, Inc.
- Farrel, Walter, O.P. and Haly, Martin J. 1952. My Way of Life. USA. Confraternity of the Precious Blood.
- Lipio, Felicidad C.O.P. 1998. Conscience: A Catholic Filipino View: Manila: St. Paul’s Philippines
- Morga, Michael D. S.J. 1993. Toward Authentic Morality: An Ethics Textbook for Philippines, Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.
- Montemayor, Felix M. 1994. Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.
- Peschke, Karl H. S.V.D. 1996. Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II. Manila: Divine World Publications.
- Reyes, Ramon C. 1989. Ground and Norm of Morality: Ethics for College Students. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
- Rice, Charles E. 1996. 50 Questions on the National Law: What It Is and Why We Need It? San Francisco, Ignatius Press
